Cartographic Projection
every map is wrong, and by exactly how much
Generator family

A route on the sphere, and what a map does to it

route-map draws the great circle against the rhumb line, route-projections draws the same pair under several projections, excess-chart measures what the difference costs, flattening-cost measures what the sphere assumption costs, leg-error measures what flying it in straight legs costs, antipodal-scan and antipodal-routes are the case where the shortest route stops being unique, avoid-cap is the route that must go round something, and flow-route is the route that is quickest rather than shortest. diversion-route is the shortest route that must stay within a stated distance of somewhere to land, which is a region the route lives in rather than a cost it pays. refraction-route is the quickest route across a line where the speed jumps, the law of angles it bends by, and which charts let that law be read with a protractor. position-fix is a ship's position fixed from two altitudes, the straight lines that stand in for the circles, and what the chart they are drawn on does to the fix.

route-map draws the great circle against the rhumb line, route-projections draws the same pair under several projections, excess-chart measures what the difference costs, flattening-cost measures what the sphere assumption costs, leg-error measures what flying it in straight legs costs, antipodal-scan and antipodal-routes are the case where the shortest route stops being unique, avoid-cap is the route that must go round something, and flow-route is the route that is quickest rather than shortest. diversion-route is the shortest route that must stay within a stated distance of somewhere to land, which is a region the route lives in rather than a cost it pays. refraction-route is the quickest route across a line where the speed jumps, the law of angles it bends by, and which charts let that law be read with a protractor. position-fix is a ship's position fixed from two altitudes, the straight lines that stand in for the circles, and what the chart they are drawn on does to the fix.

Every one of these is the same construction answering a different question, which is why they share their drawing rules, their colours and their checks. Changing it changes all 12.

39 essays call it. Every call below passes it something, because a placement that passes nothing draws whichever member of the family the generator happens to default to rather than the one its essay argues about.

What it draws

One picture per question the family answers. Each has a page of its own.

The shortest crossing that never goes more than 745 km from an airfield. New York to London, drawn on a conformal conic, with a circle of 745 km round each of twenty airfields on both sides of the North Atlantic. The dashed line is the great circle, 5,540 km. The solid line is the shortest route that stays inside the circles, 5,698 km — 158 km or 2.85 per cent longer — and it bends only where two circles cross: between Narsarsuaq and Keflavík; Keflavík and Vágar. Nowhere else can it bend, because anywhere else a straight cut stays inside a circle.

diversion-route

The shortest crossing that never goes more than 745 km from an airfield The quickest way out of the ice bends at the edge. A ship twelve kilometres inside a straight ice edge, making 6 km/h in the ice and 25 km/h in open water, bound for a point ten kilometres out into the water and twenty along. The dashed line is the straight route, 3.244 hours. The solid one is the quickest, 2.849 hours — 24 min sooner — and it reaches the edge only 2.55 km along, leaving the slow ice as directly as it can. At the edge it meets the perpendicular at 12.0° in the ice and leaves at 60.2° in the water, and the sines of those angles stand in the ratio of the speeds to within 4e-17.

refraction-route

The quickest way out of the ice bends at the edge New York to Madrid on Mercator. Two routes. The great circle is 5768 km and is the shortest path on the sphere. The rhumb line holds a single compass bearing the whole way and is 5939 km — 171 km further, or 3.0 per cent. On Mercator the rhumb line departs from straight by 9.6e-16 of its own length.

route-map

New York to Madrid on Mercator London to Tokyo, seen four ways. The same two routes on four projections. The gnomonic projection renders every great circle as an exactly straight line, which is what it is for; Mercator renders every rhumb line straight instead. Neither path changed — only the map did.

route-projections

London to Tokyo, seen four ways What a constant compass bearing costs. The extra distance of the rhumb line over the great circle, for five journeys. It runs from almost nothing on a nearly north–south route to 28 per cent on a high-latitude east–west one. Every number is computed from the two distance formulae rather than quoted.

excess-chart

What a constant compass bearing costs What treating the Earth as a sphere costs, per journey. The ellipsoidal geodesic minus the spherical great circle, in kilometres, for five journeys. The correction is a few tenths of a per cent and it changes sign: a route running east–west at mid latitude is longer on the ellipsoid, and one running along a meridian is shorter, because an oblate body is fatter round the equator and flatter pole to pole. Both distances are computed — Vincenty's iteration against the haversine formula — and the ellipsoidal one is checked against a geodesic obtained by integrating its own differential equation.

flattening-cost

What treating the Earth as a sphere costs, per journey What each extra leg buys on London to Tokyo. The worst departure from the great circle, and the extra distance flown, against the number of constant-heading legs, on logarithmic axes. The slope is -1.84: doubling the legs quarters the error, so the first few are worth far more than the rest. 32 legs bring the route inside 10 km of the great circle, at a cost of 2 km on a 9559 km flight — 0.03%.

leg-error

What each extra leg buys on London to Tokyo Where the inverse problem stops converging, 3° around the antipode of London. Every target in a 6° square centred on the point diametrically opposite London, shaded by how many iterations Vincenty's inverse formula needed to find the geodesic to it. 3 of 625 — 0% — never converged at all, and the worst success took 113 steps against a handful anywhere else on Earth. The failure is not a defect in the formula: near the antipode the shortest path is nearly ambiguous, and an iteration looking for one answer is being asked which of many.

antipodal-scan

Where the inverse problem stops converging, 3° around the antipode of London eight shortest routes from London to its antipode. Great circles leaving London on eight different bearings, every one of them arriving at the same point on the far side of the world after exactly the same 20015 km. Between a point and its antipode there is no shortest path, because there are infinitely many and they are all shortest. Displace the destination by 0.4° — 52 km — and one of them wins, but only just, which is the condition an iterative solver cannot handle.

antipodal-routes

eight shortest routes from London to its antipode London to Tokyo, round a 15° exclusion. The direct great circle, dashed, runs through the disc. The admissible shortest route leaves it along a great circle tangent to the rim, follows the rim, and leaves along another tangent — which is the closed-form answer and is checked against a shortest-path search over the rim that knows nothing about tangents. It costs 39 kilometres on 9559, which is 0.41 per cent. The rim stretch is 293 kilometres of it, and it is the only part of the route that is not a geodesic anywhere along its length. Drawn in Orthographic.

avoid-cap

London to Tokyo, round a 15° exclusion The shortest route and the quickest one, in a zonal jet. A craft making 20 km/h through the medium, from 40° north, 34° west to 52° north, 6° east. The great circle is 3313 km and takes 111.6 hours in this flow; the quickest track is 169 km longer — 5.1 per cent further — and takes 99.1 hours, saving 11.2 per cent of the time. The strokes are the flow at its own scale, and the whole difference is that the track bends into the helping part of it. Drawn in Lambert conformal conic.

flow-route

The shortest route and the quickest one, in a zonal jet Two lines of position replace two circles thousands of kilometres across. A ship at 50° N 20° W observes two bodies at altitudes of 45.60° and 42.69°, which place it on two circles 4,938 and 5,261 km in radius, drawn faint. From an assumed position 150 km to the north-east, each body's azimuth is laid off (dashed) and its intercept marked — 12.2 km and 111 km — and a line of position drawn perpendicular to the azimuth through that point. On Mercator the two lines cross 3.28 km from the ship: each line is only its circle's tangent at the intercept, and by the time the two lines meet they have left their circles.

position-fix

Two lines of position replace two circles thousands of kilometres across

Where it is called

Changing this changes every one of these figures.

London to Tokyo on Mercator. Two routes. The great circle is 9559 km and is the shortest path on the sphere. The rhumb line holds a single compass bearing the whole way and is 11296 km — 1737 km further, or 18.2 per cent. On Mercator the rhumb line departs from straight by 5.0e-9 of its own length. Paths and directions

The shortest route is not straight

The shortest path between two points on a sphere is an arc of a great circle, and on almost every map it is a curve. The straight line on a Mercator chart is a different route entirely, and on some journeys it is twenty-eight per cent longer.

 New York to Madrid on Mercator. Two routes. The great circle is 5768 km and is the shortest path on the sphere. The rhumb line holds a single compass bearing the whole way and is 5939 km — 171 km further, or 3.0 per cent. On Mercator the rhumb line departs from straight by 9.6e-16 of its own length. Paths and directions

Why Mercator exists

A ship can hold a compass bearing and cannot easily hold a great circle. Mercator is the answer to one question — what must a map do so that a constant bearing is a straight line — and it answers it exactly.

 London to Tokyo, seen four ways. The same two routes on four projections. The gnomonic projection renders every great circle as an exactly straight line, which is what it is for; Mercator renders every rhumb line straight instead. Neither path changed — only the map did. The families

The aspect is a free choice

A projection's distortion pattern is fixed relative to its own axis, and where that axis points is entirely up to the cartographer. Rotating it is the cheapest available improvement and it is the one most often left unmade.

 London to Tokyo, seen four ways. The same two routes on four projections. The gnomonic projection renders every great circle as an exactly straight line, which is what it is for; Mercator renders every rhumb line straight instead. Neither path changed — only the map did. Paths and directions

The gnomonic companion

One projection turns every great circle into a straight line, and it is the only one that does. It shows less than half the sphere, distorts enormously, and was indispensable for three centuries because of that single exact property.

 Why there are two latitudes, at 45°. A meridian section of an ellipsoid with the flattening exaggerated 12× — at the true value of 1/298 this outline would be indistinguishable from a circle. Geodetic latitude is the angle the surface normal makes with the equatorial plane; geocentric latitude is the angle the radius makes with it. The two lines meet the plane at different points and the angles differ by 11.55 arcminutes on the real WGS84 ellipsoid, which is about 21 km of ground distance. What is taught wrongly

The Earth is a sphere, and when it is not

Every essay before this one treated the Earth as a ball, and said so. The flattening is one part in three hundred, which is nothing for a distance, everything for a latitude, and exactly enough to make the most-used projection in the world fail the property in its own name.

 London to Tokyo on Orthographic. Two routes. The great circle is 9559 km and is the shortest path on the sphere. The rhumb line holds a single compass bearing the whole way and is 11296 km — 1737 km further, or 18.2 per cent. On Orthographic the rhumb line departs from straight by 2.9e-1 of its own length. Paths and directions

The great-circle vertex

One quantity is constant along a shortest path on a sphere, and it fixes the highest latitude that path will reach before the journey starts. That number is why polar routes exist, and it can be read off the departure bearing without tracing the route at all.

 What treating the Earth as a sphere costs, per journey. The ellipsoidal geodesic minus the spherical great circle, in kilometres, for five journeys. The correction is a few tenths of a per cent and it changes sign: a route running east–west at mid latitude is longer on the ellipsoid, and one running along a meridian is shorter, because an oblate body is fatter round the equator and flatter pole to pole. Both distances are computed — Vincenty's iteration against the haversine formula — and the ellipsoidal one is checked against a geodesic obtained by integrating its own differential equation. Paths and directions

Geodesics on the ellipsoid, and why they are hard

The shortest path on a flattened Earth is not a plane curve, has no closed form, and can be longer or shorter than the spherical answer depending on which way it runs. Every practical method is a series or an iteration, and the correction changes sign.

 Where the inverse problem stops converging, 3° around the antipode of London. Every target in a 6° square centred on the point diametrically opposite London, shaded by how many iterations Vincenty's inverse formula needed to find the geodesic to it. 3 of 625 — 0% — never converged at all, and the worst success took 113 steps against a handful anywhere else on Earth. The failure is not a defect in the formula: near the antipode the shortest path is nearly ambiguous, and an iteration looking for one answer is being asked which of many. Paths and directions

The route with no shortest path

Between a point and the point diametrically opposite there are infinitely many shortest routes and no shortest route, and the standard formula for the distance between two places stops converging in a neighbourhood of it. The failure is a property of the question rather than a defect in the answer.

The whole library